Assessment Practice in Classroom Free Essays

Appraisal practice in homeroom Students’ evaluation is one of the fundamental standards of any academic program; it has a urgent influence in the instructive procedure. As indicated by McMillan (2011), achieving an ideal study hall appraisal requires important learning objectives and gauges that ought to be set before initiating study hall evaluation techniques. Observing students’ progress will assist educators with adjusting their guidelines successfully to take understudies to the following degree of learning. We will compose a custom exposition test on Appraisal Practice in Classroom or on the other hand any comparative theme just for you Request Now Indicative appraisal, developmental evaluation, and summative appraisal are significant kinds of study hall evaluation, and together they structure the evaluation cycle. McMillan (2011) brings up that educators must utilize accomplishment data got from summative appraisal to give guidelines, to achieve the motivation behind the evaluation, and to give execution criticism to understudies and guardians. Pre evaluation or indicative appraisal is the initial phase in study hall appraisal that educators do before starting another learning movement, to furnish them with data about students’ pre information, inclinations, and inspirations. It is a significant system expected to continue to the following stage, which is developmental evaluation. This sort of study hall appraisal is given during a learning action to identify the student’s advance and modify instructing as per conceivable new prerequisites. In the wake of finishing the learning action, summative appraisal participates all the while. This appraisal is expected to decide if long haul learning objectives have been met, notwithstanding giving criticism and estimating the degree of progress that has been gotten; understudies can utilize results of a summative evaluation developmentally to manage their learning. So as to make this procedure powerful, instructors ought to perform steady evaluations that give solid outcomes on the grounds that â€Å"unreliable appraisals can't be valid† (Eggen, 2009, p. 36). Muddled headings can give conflicting data that lead to unintended negative outcomes. Repetitive disappointment in understudies with learning handicaps can prompt a further disappointment; instructors can bolster those understudies by empowering them, and attempting to modify their fearlessness (Robinson, 2008). Those understudies need uncommon materials and learning techniques to manage their learning issues. Diagno sing the understudies first, can assist instructors with making right choices later, considering each student’s uniqueness. There are a few strategies to be utilized in the homeroom to guarantee accomplishment as indicated by Robinson (2008). For example, the language experience approach and perusing â€Å"usually ensures enthusiasm, as it is one in which the understudy has an individual contribution. It is actualized with them and for them, it has a place with them. It permits the student to get associated with the learning procedure. Certainty and achievement are typically ensured, as building up your own accounts dependent on ordinary exercises is probably going to make the assignment simpler to learn. Perusing one’s own story, for instance, ought to be simpler as essayists ought to recollect what the story was about† (Robinson, 2008, p. 306). This technique speaks to a case of developmental evaluation in a study hall. The last phase of evaluation speaks to the procedure of summative appraisal. Robinson (2008) proposes that perusing the story onto a recording device could be helpful for correction, by updating the students’ work, instructors will give criticism to understudies, and might need to present new instructional designs to advance students’ learning. Homeroom evaluation is a teachers’ ground-breaking instructive apparatus, particularly when they use it to determine understudies to have learning challenges, and make adjustments to their learning materials and guidelines. McMillan (2011) contends that so as to make the appraisal technique fruitful if there should arise an occurrence of showing understudies with learning troubles, instructors ought to watch understudies correctly to give exact signs of their exhibition. Utilizing the evaluation cycle in homeroom fortifies learning and improves its quality. Making alterations that adjust to learners’ capacities can emphatically impact them instructively. (514) words References: McMillan, James H. (2010) Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction, fifth Edition. Pearson/Australia, Dec-10 Eggen, P. (2009) Educational Psychology: windows on study halls, eighth Edition. Pearson/Australia, Jan-09 Robinson, G. (2008b). Getting education and numeracy. In P. Foreman (Ed. ), Inclusion in real life (second ed. , pp. 303-307). South Melbourne, Victoria: Thompson. Step by step instructions to refer to Assessment Practice in Classroom, Essay models

Symbolized and What it Meant to America Essay Example for Free

Represented and What it Meant to America Essay In spite of the fact that the negative previously established inclination of the general American open was the broadly conveyed message of papers previously and during the beginning of the said occasion, this isn't what was secured by Colliers article since it was discharged during the most recent day of the occasion as of now. In this manner, what the article introduced as the slant of America for the occasion, with regards to what occurred during the as far as anyone knows a day ago of the occasion, was that of regard and tribute over the conduct of the hundred thousands adolescents who went to the occasion. This is exemplified by similar passages in the past page that Collier used to pass on a positive picture for the occasion. In the event that we are to separate the American estimation over the occasion from those not many that were met for the article, it could be seen that America was amazed by and affirmed of the conduct of the members, which was described by bewildering civility, request, and concordance. Originating from an unequivocal desire for negative conduct from the young who would go to the occasion, it could have truly been such a charming shock to America that the adolescent had the option to transcend all their assumptions. Be that as it may, it would be likewise sensible to envision that alongside the positive impression of the American open over the general accomplishment of the occasion was the worry over what was uncovered the predominant culture of medications among the adolescent. With the reports of the occasion displaying how tranquilizes unfavorably influences the soundness of the young and even lead to death and how the adolescent unmitigatedly welcome such practices and even treats it as a culture, there is little contention that the remainder of America who are not part of the said age and culture is concerned over the potential aftereffects of such a marvel over the long haul. Consequently, basing from Collier’s article, one might say that America’s impression of the occasion could have been a blend of both positive and negative things. Positive as far as regard over the triumph of the American youth in organizing such a tranquil showcase of solidarity, and negative as far as their anxiety over the looming impact of the youth’s conspicuous medication rehearses. In any case, the regard for the adolescent and their generation’s culture that has been planted by the occasion in the hearts and psyches of the American individuals is something that couldn't be deleted for a long time into the future. A. What the Event Symbolized and What it Meant to America In Collier’s article, what was depicted as the imagery of Woodstock for the individuals who took part in it was â€Å"an inconceivable unification† of individuals. Woodstock, for the young who went to it, was the satisfaction of their exciting desire for having the option to meet outsiders who shared their practices, convictions, and culture. The occasion was likewise a satisfaction of the youth’s enthusiasm to explore different avenues regarding drugs alongside the various individuals of their age. This is based structure a passage in Colliers article . Concerning the remainder of America who were not there at Woodstock and who were not part of the way of life that Woodstock cultivated, the occasion could in any case have represented a positive thing. For them, Woodstock could have been an image that however the young people of America have been rehearsing a culture altogether unique in relation to that of the past ages, that doesn't imply that the age was of nothing more than trouble. Woodstock could have all around been an image that the young people of that day had the right to be regarded for being the lovely individuals that they are and for the excellent things that they can do, past the partiality that they have been confronted with. For America, Woodstock could have implied that where their childhood places their heart into, there would likewise be harmony, agreement, and excellence.

Pliny Account of the Destruction of Pompeii Research Paper - 275 Words

Pliny Account of the Destruction of Pompeii Research Paper (Research Paper Sample) Content: PLINY ACCOUNT OF THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEIIAuthors NameClassProfessors NameSchoolCityStateDatePliny Account of the Destruction of PompeiiIn the accounts given Pliny on the destruction of Pompeii, he provides a revealing experience on the in-depth occurrences that took place on the said day. In his descriptions, he describes how the sea waters became unstable, and a huge cloud engulfed the sky with stones falling from the heavens. Pliny describes how he witnessed the deep dark cloud arising from the mountains which he later knew was Vesuvius and the fear that gripped him at the tender age of seventeen years (Jashemski, 1979). According to Pliny, The view on the sky look looked like a pine tree and ascended into the heavens like a very long stalk and later spread like it created branches in the air. His belief was it was caused by a sudden blast which raised the thick ash into the sky but then became weak in support which left it descending towards the ground spreading sideways. The buildings were shocked strongly by the tremors which made them sway uncontrollably. The fire consumed the whole place, although, it was day time, the sky was dark and thick that night, and there was a smell of sulphur which filled the place (Jashemski, 1979).Archaeological findings of today describe how Mount Vesuvius erupted catastrophically and caused the destruction and disappearance of a nearby Roman town, Pompeii. Ruins of Pompeii were discovered by a surveying engineer in 1748 and had been frozen and buried in the ground since summer of A.D. 79 (Binford, 1981). The evidence provided by Pliny gives a more deta...

Basics of Contract Law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1262 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Narrative essay Level High school Tags: Act Essay Contract Law Essay Did you like this example? Invitation to Treat Invitation to treat is a contract law term. However, it is not an offer. It is merely an invitation to others to make offers. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Basics of Contract Law" essay for you Create order It is a sort of preliminary negotiation to buy something and it follows that an invitation to treat cannot be accepted and there is no commitment to sell or offer which could be accepted. The court will always look at the language used or the inferred intention of the parties when deciding between an invitation to treat. Invitation to treat often appears in the shops display, tenders, advertisements, auctions, price list and catalogues, preliminary enquiries and supply of information. It is important that an offer must be distinguished from invitation to treat. Next, we will discuss about the cases which involves in invitation to treat. Auctions The display of goods at an auctioneerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s table and auctioneers calls for bids is an invitation to treat. The bids made by persons at the auction are offers, which the auctioneer can accept or reject as he chooses. The fall of hammer is the acceptance. Similarity, the bidder may retract his bid before the hammer falls and the bid is accepted. It becomes a contract when the hammer falls or the auctioneer bang the gable down. Case 1 from UK Auctioneerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s request for bids is an invitation to treat. The bid itself is an offer which the vendor can accept or reject. However, when the hammer falls, it became contract. Payne v Cave (1789) Fact: Mr.Cave made the highest bid for Mr.Payneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s goods at an auction. However, Mr.Cave changed his mind and he withdrew his bid before the auctioneer brought down his hammer. The auction was under standard conditions. Held: According to [Section 2 of the Contract Act], it was held that the defendant was not bound to purchase the goods. His bid amounted to an offer which he was entitled to withdraw at any time before the auctioneer signified acceptance by knocking down the hammer. In an auction, the auctioneerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s call for bids is an invitation to treat, a request for offers. The bidder may retract his bid up until the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“fall of the hammerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . Case 2 from UK Advertisement stating a sale by auction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“without reserveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  is an offer. Warlow v Harrison (1859) Fact: In this case, a public auction of a horse, without reserve, was advertised by the defendant Harrison, an auctioneer. The Plaintiff, Warlow attended the sale and bid 60 guineas and the horseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s owner attended too and bid 61 guineas. The Plaintiff knew that it was the horse owner who bid 61 guineas, so he did not make any further bud. The auctioneer, Harrision, knocked down the hammer 3 times to the horse owner. The Plaintiff claimed that the horse was his since he was the highest bona fide purchaser at an unreserved sale. The issue of the case was whether there was a contract for sale. Held: According to [Section 2 of the Contract Act 1950], the court held that the sale should be without reserve, the auctioneer had made a definite order in his advertisement to this effect. The owner could not bid on its own property. The Plaintif f, by making his bid in reliance upon it had accepted the offer. So, the contract was formed. The court ruled that in a sale by auction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“without reserveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , the vendor cannot bid at auction. There was a breach of contract between auctioneer and highest bona fide bidder, therefore the plaintiff has the right of action against the auctioneer. Case 3 from Malaysia In Malaysia, the general rule that applied in an auction is when the sale is concluded at the fall of hammer. MJ Frozen Food Anor v Siland Sdn Bhd Anor (1994) Fact: This case involved a sale of land in a public auction. It revolves around whether a sale was concluded at the fall of the auctioneers hammer relating to a sale of land at a public auction. The right to be heard where the purchasers of a judicial sale apply for an extension of time to pay the balance of the purchase price. Held: According to [Section 2 of the Contract Act 1950], the court held that at the fall of the hammer, an agreement is concluded between vendor and the highest bidder. Therefore, the vendor cannot offer the goods to other buyers and bidder cannot retract his acceptance. The Supreme Court per Wan Yahya SCJ, held that: A purchaser of land may fail to obtain good title in two distinct ways. First will be the title of the vendor is bad. Next, still if the vendor has a good title, there might be s ome invalidating defects in conveyance or transactions in which purchaser attempted to obtain title. Where the vendors title is good but the instrument that was used by a purchaser for registration is void or voidable, the effect on such registration will only grant on the person in whose name the land is registered. The registration of the insufficient and void instrument can be set aside.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  In addition, in the Federal Court stated that in s 340 of the NLC, the distinctive use of the words proprietor and purchaser did not consider. Summary: Based on the 3 cases above, there are different principles that apply in an auction. For the case of Payne v Cave (1789) and MJ Frozen Food Anor v Siland Sdn Bhd Anor (1994), the similarity for both of the cases is the sale is concluded at the fall of hammer. The auctioneer is the agent of the vendor and the assent of both parties is necessary to make the contract binding. Besides that, it is signified on the part of the se ller by knocking down the hammer. Every of the bidding did nothing more than an offer on one side which is not binding on either side until it is assented to. However, for the case of Warlow v Harrison (1859), the principle is different from the other two cases above. According to [Section 2 of the Contract Act], the case apply that an advertisement stating a sale by auction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“without reserveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , is an offer. Neither the vendor nor any person in his behalf shall bid at the auction, and that the property should be sold to the highest bidder, whether the bid is equivalent to the real value of property or not. Conclusion Contract law comes into play in almost every aspect of life. The study and the application of the contract law make up a core component of the learning and the practice of law. The significance of the role played by an individualist society in the development of modern English contract law can barely be left without. Nevertheless, con tract law provides essential infrastructure for a market economy. There are certain contracting parties need protection of the law against economic exploitation and depression. Contract law is changing to reflect these changes in economic reality. This allows business world by making sure that if a party breaks his promise and persists with his rejection to act as agreed, the other parties may well wish to enforce performance. By allowing people to make their agreements legally binding, contract law increases certainty and predictability about the future. Lastly, with some amendment, it will benefit the minor with some guardian or guarantor from their parents. References https://www.slideshare.net/Elainebang/law-of-contract https://www.psb1.uum.edu.my/lpBin21/emaj.dll/Infobase9/%40o%40/37?f=templatesfn=document-frame.htmct=application%2Fpdf2.0 Malaysia Law Journal https://jeraldgomez.com/pdf/73956b3ddf6b1ae046dae1c6c7bc9388.pdf

walden Current Trends in Accounting ACCT6140Standards Essay

Delineating Related Intel Pentium Accounting Research Questions Sami Mansour Walden University Current Trends in Accounting ACCT6140Standards May 17, 2015 Delineating Related Intel Pentium Accounting Research Questions Introduction The purpose of this paper is to define research questions (below) relating to Accounting for the Intel Pentium Chip Flaw (Hawkins, Miller Narayanan, 2009). The questions are as follows; (A3.1) If you were an accountant for Intel, what specifically would be the relevant accounting research question with respect to the Intel Pentium chip flaw? (A3.2) What constrains Intels decisions about how to account for the Pentium chip flaw? (A3.3) What do you need to know, estimate, and assume to answer the†¦show more content†¦They ignored to claim the default to avoid the financial effect The accounting constraint of materiality would indicate that this item could be recorded as an expense (more expedient) since it is not material enough to influence the decision of a reasonably prudent creditor or investor(Weygand, 2009). Intel is always constrained by agreements/ contracts with their lenders to pay from retained earnings. Dividend is usually distributed to the owners in term profits . Intel may be constrained by the requirements of other obligations of generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Estimations and Assumptions to the Research Question Accountants need to estimate the magnitude of the problem. Intel should use the management function such as planning, controlling and directing the solution toward the problem. It is a quantities analysis that needs measurement, facts, and common sense. The accountant always suggests mathematical models based on statistics such as confident level, mean, variance, and correlation ration R-square (Weygandt, 2009). Intel might consider contingent theory to estimate a certain event of error. It is probability of occurrence. The FAS 5; accounting for contingencies is defined as an existing event/situation or group/set of events involving some kind of uncertainty which may result in a gain or loss. This will be resolved when future circumstances/event fail to take place/occur. Resolution may result in loss of an asset (Financial

Human Resource Management Hewitt Associates

Question: Task 1: Written Report For this task, consider the following situations in order to complete the question below: Situation 1 Due to the volume of new staff required, the decision has been made to retain the services of an HR Consultancy Firm who will be seeking to assist in providing Inductions, WHS training, and HR advice and service training in line with BEST Pearls preferred methodology. This HR Consultancy Firm is known as Hewitt Associates and they are one of the world's leading HR consulting and outsourcing companies. Hewitt Associates (https://www.hewittassociates.com/), have appointed Mr Richard Mayall as the Client Manager looking after BEST Pearls, and he will be handling ongoing negotiations between BEST Pearls and Hewitt Associates. BEST Pearls will shortly be engaging in correspondence with Hewitt Associates to arrange any necessary Service Level Agreement(s). However, before this occurs, you will need to look over the current direction and strategy of BEST Pearls and identify any other weaknesses/threats that may be faced or need to be addressed. Situation 2 BEST Pearls is now in a position to go ahead and retain the services of Hewitt Associates. You have contacted Mr Mayall and he has indicated that Hewitt Associate will be well placed to assist BEST Pearls as soon as there is an agreement in place which is satisfactory to both parties. You have been appointed the task of arranging a Service Level Agreement (SLA) between the two parties for the provision of Employment Contract Advice, Inductions and initial OHS training for new starters. (A) Establish a service level agreement* (SLA) between BEST Pearls and their HR solutions provider, Hewitt Associates. Your SLA will need to include the service specifications, performance standards and timeframes required from the agreement.(B) (Linking from Assessment One) Develop the human resources strategies and services for BEST Pearls employees and its HR provider, Hewitt Associates.(C) Identify and design training support for BEST Pearls employees, considering the organisations goals and strategies.(D) Develop tools to monitor the quality of training provided by Hewitt Associates, including actions to rectify under-performance.(E) Outline the confidentiality requirements associated with this HR-related SLA.(F) Briefly outline and identify the advantages in using Hewitt Associates services. Task 2: Create a Feedback Survey (A) Acting as the HR Manager, you have been asked to design a client feedback survey that Hewitt Associates could use to determine the level of satisfaction that BEST Pearls feel towards the SLA.You will need to consider the purpose of this survey by Hewitt Associates (to analyse feedback and adopt possible changes recommended by BEST Pearls), including:1. Approvals to variations in service delivery between Hewitt Associates and BEST Pearls;2. Change of processes across the organisation;(B) Design an employees feedback form to determine the level of satisfaction of the training provided by the HR provider, considering any benefits for their improvement. Answers: Task 1 Written Report (A) Service Level Agreement Statement of Intent The aim of this agreement is to provide a basis of close cooperation between Best Pearls and Hewitt Associates for HR consultancy services to be provided by Hewitt Associates to Best Pearls to ensure services are delivered in a timely and efficient manner. This agreement is contingent on each party knowing and fulfilling their responsibilities and working in a manner that creates an environment conducive to the achievement and maintenance of targeted service levels. Service Specifications Hewitt Associated will provide the following services: Service Type Description of Service Response Time Performance Standards Employment Contact Advice Ensuring that the contract of employment and associated paperwork in relation to employees is completed accurate and in a timely manner (Snell Bohlander, 2012). Within 48 hours Services provided within specified timeframe and to expected quality. Employee Feedback about the quality of response provided Advice amendments as and when required. With 24 hours Handle employee queries related to employment contract Within 24 Hours Inductions Book induction events. Within 48 hours of the joining date of new employees Induction for new hires started on the third day of joining. Events were well informed to employees and trainers. All training materials were available. Feedback provided by employees after the induction session was completed Confirm Trainers availability Before 24 hours the induction is scheduled Ensure that schedule is effectively communicated to employees Before 24 hours the induction is scheduled Ensure all training materials and other necessities are available Before 24 hours the induction is scheduled Ensure adequate number of feedback forms are available Before the end of induction session Ensure that employee feedbacks is collected Within 48 hours of competition of induction Initial OHS Training Book Training events Within 5 days of completion of induction All activities are performed within defined time frame. Feedback received from the employees undergoing the training. Confirm trainers availability Before 24 hours the training is scheduled Effectively communicate Schedule to new hires Before 48 hours the training is scheduled Ensure all material related to policies and procedures for effective management of Health and Safety are referred in-details Before 24 hours the induction is scheduled Drills related to Health and Safety are properly organised and communicated Within 2 days the OHS training is completed Within 2 days the OHS drills are completed Feedback related to OHS training is collected Client Responsibility: The client undertakes to provide Hewitt Associates with necessary information and support as an when required and make them aware of related issues that come up as soon as reasonably practicable (Pattanayak, 2005). They must promptly respond to requests for training and development. (B) Human Resource Strategies and Services Human resource is considered the most precious asset for an organisation (Armstrong, 2011). An effective HR strategy is important to ensure high performance and overall productivity (Bhatia, 2007). BEST Pearls is looking forward to hire Hewitt Associates as an external HR consultant who will be responsible for provision of Employment Contract Advice, Initial OHS training and induction for new starters. BEST Pearls looks forward to develop an environment where all employees are encouraged to learn and develop. They want to ensure that right people are attracted, maintained and retained in order to achieve desired organisational goals. Hewitt Associate as an external HR consultancy will ensure that BEST pearls have updated information related to Employment Contracts and adequate changes are made as and when needed. They will be responsible for ensuring that all activities related to induction and initial OHS trainings of newly hired employees is conducted in a timely and effective manner. (C) Training Support for BEST Pearls employees A training support comprises of a schedule of activities ensuring that training goals are met, learning objectives, methods, subject areas, trainees, trainers, locations and methods of assessment (Deb, 2006). Training support for induction of BEST Perals employees is shown below: 1. Getting information on the numbers of new hires to be trained.2. Booking rooms and needed training materials.3. Booking timeslots from trainers (in case of induction trainers include companies top executives who will brief the new hires about company and its processes) (Lawler Boudreau, 2009).4. Ensuring needed training materials are ready ( hard and soft copies)5. Informing the schedules to new hires.6. Ensuring assessment materials and Feedback survey materials are ready.7. Ensuring that training are conducted effectively as scheduled. (D) Tools to monitor quality of training There are a number of tools that can help monitor quality of training delivered by Hewitt Associates (Wilson, 2005). Checklist for supervisory visits can be effectively used in the given case. Checklist will contain following questions: 1. Ratio of learners to facilitators; total number of new hirers attending the sessions (Holbeche, 2012)2. Time allocated for workshops 3. Frequency of questions asked and answers delivered as per expectations4. Frequency of assessments and timely delivery of results (E) Confidentiality requirements Hewitt Associates will ensure confidentiality of the employee information and important materials/documents furnished by BEST Pearls is preserved and protected (Cooper Burke, 2011). (F) Benefits of using Hewitt Associates services Hewitt Associates is one of the worlds leading HR consulting and outsourcing company. They provide their services globally in more than 120 countries (Aon Plc, 2015). They have years of experience in HR field and have around 66,000 talented employees serving customers of different types and sizes. Their customer-oriented approach makes them the best choice for BEST Pearls. Task 2 Create a Feedback Survey (A) Client Feedback Survey The below mentioned questions must be rated in scale range of 1-3; 1- Strongly disagree2- Neither Agree nor Disagree3- Strongly Agree Overall, the service level Agreement meets the expectation of BEST Pearls.1- 2- 3- Service level targets are effectively reflected and meet expectations. 1- 2- 3- The services offered in the agreement compare to your ideal service.1- 2- 3- Are there any recommendations that can help improve the response time, quality and processes mentioned in the agreement? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Based on your recommendations will changes of processes across the organisation be accepted as and when required? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (B) Employees Feedback Survey The below mentioned questions must be rated in scale range of 1-5; 1: All of the time 2- Most of the time3- Some of the time4- Hardly ever5- Never Services 1 2 3 4 5 Trainings schedules are well informed Trainers are knowledgeable, interactive and encouraging Materials and documents used are up to the mark Purpose behind the session is clear Trainers encourage you to ask questions Answers provided are satisfactory Training is conducted as scheduled Any changes are well-informed References Aon Plc. (2015). Aon. Retrieved 2015, from Aon: https://www.aon.com/about-aon/company-overview.jsp Armstrong, M. (2011). Armstrong's Handbook of Strategic Human Resource Management. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Bhatia, S. (2007). Strategic Human Resource Management : Winning Through People. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications. Cooper, C. L., Burke, R. J. (2011). Human Resource Management in Small Business: Achieving Peak Performance. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Deb, T. (2006). Strategic Approach to Human Resource Management. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers Dist. Holbeche, L. (2012). Aligning Human Resources and Business Strategy. New Jersey: Routledge. Lawler, E., Boudreau, J. W. (2009). Achieving Excellence in Human Resources Management (Stanford University Press ed.). Stanford. Pattanayak, B. (2005). Human Resource Management. New Delhi: PHI Learning Pvt. Snell, S., Bohlander, G. (2012). Managing Human Resources. New York: Cengage Learning. Wilson, J. P. (2005). Human Resource Development: Learning Training for Individuals Organizations. London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Social Dimensions In Management Essays - Human Resource Management

Social Dimensions In Management Table of Contents: 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Managers responsibility in the office and in society. 3.0 Employees responsibility in the office and in society. 4.0 Changing for the future. 5.0 Who is affected and to what degree. 6.0 Conclusion and Summary 7.0 Bibliography. ------------------------------------------------------- 1.0 Introduction Management is the process of planning, organizing and staffing, directing and controlling activities in an organization in a systematic way in order to achieve a specific goal. From time in memorial, society has undergone the management process. For example, in the African context, the chiefs led the clan and either the Prince or a Chief Warrior led the warriors. Comparing this scenario to the Western world, take for example Britain and Spain was and is led by the Queen and King respectively while the United States was and is led by a President. From the above it is a clear indication that they were appointed and had responsibilities and duties (as clear as any organization would refer to its leaders). Social dimensions in management refer to both the societal changes as well as managerial changes that affect the working environment. This paper is written to tackle these changes from all angles. 2.0 Managers responsibility in the office and in society. A managers responsibility both in the office and out there is to uphold his duties both as an employee of an organization and as a member of society. Society is fundamentally based upon performance and profit, it is not unusual to find that it is necessary to impart a sense of corporate responsibility with regard to contemporary commerce. The ethical approaches of purpose, principle and consequence are integral components of business social performance; itemizing these contributions finds one incorporating the interests of ethics and morality within the corporate structure, essential concepts that are often absent from a managerial viewpoint. However, corporate social responsibility should rightly exist within every companys infrastructure. Social integrity is not something that is often at the forefront of modern day business dealings. Ethics, business and society must work together as they go hand in hand and without all of them, then there cannot be existence for either. Ethical c oncerns ran rampant among various entities, posing questions along the way as to whether a particular practice is deemed morally acceptable. It gets in the way of resolving questions like: What is ethical concern? Am I being true to myself? Why is this bothering me? Is it my problem? (RUIN, 1997, p. PG) According to the books article on this matter, establishing proper ethical guidelines ?V and therefore appropriate corporate social responsibility ?V must come from management perspective, which is where policies are derived. The moral argument that helps managers to choose among competing duties based upon the best consequences must inevitably oblige managers to do that which is best 3.0 Employees responsibility in the office and in society. In most cases, the employee is the one who is mainly affected by the changes occurring in the economic world. Whatever he does is affected by the economic situation of any one given country of location. It is in this regard, therefore, that an employee must look into ways of effectively carrying out his duties. Gone are the days when one employee could keep his job for a very long period of time even though his level of performance is not to the desired degree. Due to high competition in the market, the employee has been forced to enhance his capabilities in both the society and the working environment. When employees set out an advertisement in order to acquire people who can then be interviewed for a post, the ones who usually succeed in passing the interview and acquiring the jobs are the people who are competent in their field of study, have working experience, who are extroverts by nature, who have good decision making skills, who can work with others, have the ability to lead, not to mention, who are involved in projects that are there to help the society at large. These are the major responsibilities that are required from any individual both in the working environment and in the social environment. 4.0 Changing for the future. During the past few decades we have seen a shift from Industrial Work to Information Technology work. Today, a workers real

Venezuela essays

Venezuela essays Several Indian tribes inhabited Venezuela before any European settlers arrived. Christopher Columbus was the first European explorer to reach Venezuela in 1498. During the 1500s, Spaniards would come to collect pearls that could be found around the Venezuelan islands. By the 1700s, Venezuela had become one of Spains poorest South American colonies. A private trading company expanded the colonys economy. However, the colonists resented the companys rigid control over trade. In the early 1800s, Spains South American colonies began a fight for independence. Venezuela was the first Spanish colony to demand independence from Spain. They declared their freedom on July 5, 1811; however, they were not truly independent until 1821. After a small period of being a segment of a country called Gran Colombia, Venezuela drafted a separate constitution in 1830. Jose Antonio Paez became the first president of a new Venezuelan republic in 1831. After their independence, Venezuela had many periods of civil unrest. There were civil wars and political instability; but after an establishment of a roads and communication systems, foreign firms began to invest in the country. Profits gained from the oil business would pay off huge national debts, and help to build a stronger army. In 1935, opposition to the dictatorship increased among Venezuelans. A political group, the Accion Domocratica, seized power of the country in 1945. Military leaders ruled until 1950, when Marcos Perez Jimenez became the dictator. Revolt once again broke out in 1958, and he was forced into exile. Later that year, voters chose their first democratically elected president. Venezuela has become one of the wealthiest and most rapidly changing countries on the South American continent. In the early 1980s, oil prices dropped around the world, and this caused Venezuelas economy to suffer greatly, because oil was the co ...

Financial Statement Analysis Report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Financial Statement Analysis Report - Assignment Example The preparation of financial statement analysis requires financial ratios, accounting data from financial statements. The ratio assists in measuring strengths and weaknesses of the firm and allows trends and comparisons with other firms within the industry to be identified. It also covers the areas of liquidity, operating profits, financing and stockholders' return on investments (Collier, Grai, Haslitt, McGowan, 2004). In the condition given, Track Events Ltd. is owned by a local independent ticket agent who sells tickets for sporting events, and that is why he needs to analyse his financial accounts in order to determine boost in sales and to make sure that his business is not suffering from insolvency. Total revenue from commissions and profitability has varied widely over the last year. Revenue from commissions peaked over ?1,073,000 in 2010 and dropped to ?1,053,000 in 2011. This may be due to decrease in the demand for the tickets being sold. Assessing the profitability of Trac k Events Ltd. is very significant in order to determine future business plans. These profitability ratios indicate the increase in the profitability of current operations of the business. Operating profit margin helps to provide useful information for investors when examining the trend for determination of the company’s quality. It has risen from 9% in 2010 to 28% in 2011. This shows that the company’s management has succeeded in generating income from the business operations. This increase is due to revenues from commissions increasing faster than the expenses of the business. Furthermore, the net profit margin which shows the earning capacity of business has gradually increased over the year from 5% to 29%. This is a clear indication of the company being considered as more stable and profitable, after payment of all taxes and expenses. Possible reasons of this are the reduction in operating expenses and increase in sales. Return on Total Assets is a measure of net pr ofit earned against the use of total assets. It has increased considerably from 2% to 14% over the year. This means that Track Events Ltd. is able to make use of its assets efficiently thereby increasing its profits. Decrease in the staff costs as a percentage of commissions earned from 62.5% to 48.7% informs that the company is able to keep more fraction of the commission after paying its staff costs as less staff costs per pound of commission earned is being paid. This drastic fall in salaries may either be due to reduction in salaries or laying off workers thereby increased productivity and reduced costs. Besides this, the evaluation in 2011 relative to the previous year concludes that the liquidity has increased, with the current ratio increasing over the year. This indicates that the position of the firm has improved and the firm is liquid enough to repay its debts. This significant increase may have been due to the increase in current assets by conversion of non-current assets into current assets, by borrowing or ploughing back profits. In addition, the decrease in current liabilities by paying off debts may also have caused this increase. The interest coverage of Track Events Ltd. has increased from 4% to 10%. This notifies that the debt burden of the company is lower and bankruptcy or default is less likely to be possible. This is due to the fact that this year Track Events made huge profits due to a radical increase in its incomes and a reduction in its expenses. Moreover, the

Volcanic Smog in Hawaii Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Volcanic Smog in Hawaii - Essay Example The volcanic smog created by Kilauea volcano is hazardous to the surrounding population as well as the whole island, economically, socially, environmentally, and physically. A volcanic smog results when sulfur dioxide mixes with different other gases, moisture, and sunlight in the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is produced, whether the volcanic activity was small or big. The effects of volcanic smog are greatly felt by those people living very close to the volcano. However, those living far away from the volcano are still affected, though in a lower measure. This is mainly because of the action of winds, which transfer the smog to different areas. In Hawaii, it is estimated that there has been approximately 50 volcanic eruptions in the twentieth Century only (Rado Web). Water in the area is greatly affected by the volcanic smog. First, there is the formation of acidic rain when sulfur dioxide in the gases emitted reacts with Oxygen in the air. The acid rain is lethal to plants, animals, and human beings. This therefore leads to other major effects. People in Hawaii Island mainly depended on rooftop rainwater for drinking and domestic and farm use. Therefore, when the volcanic smog results in acidic rain, this means the people cannot benefit from this water, as it is not safe for any use. This water cannot be drunk as it is contaminated. Therefore, they have to look for alternative sources of water for domestic use. Similarly, the acidic rain is not good for plants and other organisms. Most people in Hawaii Island practise farming as their main source of income. They plant different crops including flowers in plantations. When acidic rain occurs, the crops in plantations are destroyed, and this has forced most farmers living around Kilauea Volcano to abandon farming and look for alternative means of survival (â€Å"NCBCNEWS† Web). The sulfur dioxide in the volcanic smog has had disastrous effects on one Kau district. Many farms and nurseries have been destroy ed, in addition to putting at risk flower and vegetable farms and other crops such as tomatoes, lettuce, medical marijuana, as well as sunflower, and roses. The Hawaii government, because of the economic depression has not been able to compensate farmers for the losses, forcing most farmers to relocate. This has therefore disrupted the economic and social set-up of people, including farmers, as some have been compelled to move out of Hawaii in search of different jobs (â€Å"NCBCNEWS† Web). Apart from the economic effects, volcanic smog also affects the health of people. The volcanic smog comprises a variety of dangerous gases, and small particles and droplets that have high levels of acidity. All these can be inhaled by people, to rest in the lungs. This affects the mucus membrane and lungs, as well as lung function. This is in addition to the worsening of lung conditions such as asthma, and bronchitis, among others (â€Å"MedlinePlus.† Web). In 1997, the National Ins titute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) noted that respiratory problems due to sulfur vapors mostly affect young children (Rado Web).This is because their lungs are still developing and so might have long-term effects on the children. This puts at the risk the future population of Hawaii Island, as these children are the future of the society. Collaborating with the Hawaii Department of Health, the NIEHS conducted a health research in Hawaii to establish the relationship between volcanic smog and

Strategic Management Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategic Management - Research Proposal Example The strategic decision making on the other hand is a more streamlined segment of the overall decision making process. It is can be considered as an ongoing process which is involved in developing strategies so that the organization is capable of achieving goals and at the same time capable of altering the existing strategies based on the outcomes. The strategic decision making is largely responsible for the success of a company as it determines the success of major operational activities like the manufacturing, marketing, distribution, etc (Stokman 1-153). This research proposal is based on the influence of strategic decisions on the operational activities of product manufacturers. The research paper will encompass the case of Toyota to justify the findings and to answer the research questions. The global business environment is increasingly becoming more competitive where the business entities are trying to seek out new ways to increase their competitive advantage and gain higher market share in the industry. This as a result makes it imperative for the organizations to ensure that they are taking the right decisions that will help them to reach achieve the organizational mission in an efficient manner. In order to achieve competitive advantage the firms need to ensure that they are able to generate the higher value at the lowest possible resource utilization. Thus this research work will allow the readers to have a clear idea of the importance of strategic decision making and how other organizations can utilize the findings to increase their operational efficiency. The research questions clearly indicate that the study will be conducted by focusing on the strategic planning and decision making of Toyota. It will help the researcher to identify the underlying process followed by a successful manufacturing company to run its operational activities. This as a result will help the researcher to make a generic

Aldous Huxleys Brave New World :: Social Stability Brave New World Essays

Aldous Huxley's Brave New World In Brave New World, Aldous Huxley deftly creates a society that is indeed quite stable. Although they are being mentally manipulated, the members of this world are content with their lives, and the presence of serious conflict is minimal, if not nonexistent. For the most part, the members of this society have complete respect and trust in their superiors, and those who don’t are dealt with in a peaceful manner as to keep both society and the heretic happy. Maintained by cultural values, mental conditioning, and segregation, the idea of social stability as demonstrated in Brave New World is, in my opinion, both insightful and intriguing. The story is set hundreds of years in the future in a world with completely separate values and beliefs from those of today’s society. Birth has become an outdated and even disgusting thing. Instead of being born, humans are mass-produced through very elaborate cloning methods. Children are raised in a society that promotes both sexual promiscuity and drug use. They are brainwashed in their sleep to enjoy everything about their lives and to accept every aspect of society. Each person is predestined to fall under a specific social class that determines what they will do for a living, who they must take orders from, and even what they look like. Every aspect of every person’s life is manipulated, yet everyone feels free. One major issue that helps maintain social stability in Brave New World is sex. It is thought of as normal for people to be completely open with their sexual nature. It is typical for children to run around naked during recess playing games that are sexual and sometimes homosexual in nature. Every adult is encouraged to sleep with as many different partners as possible. This outlook on sexual nature is quite different from actual accepted views. Today, sex is most widely accepted as a private, romantic event that should take place between monogamous couples. Because sex is a natural need of the human body, people of Huxley’s society feel pleased by being open with their sexuality. Indulging in their sexual pleasures eases their minds and keeps them from questioning the level of freedom they have. Another cultural value that helps maintain social stability is drug use. Soma is a euphoric, hallucinogenic drug that the government freely gives to citizens.

Meteors Case Study Essay

Meteorites are rocks from space, which land on Earth, attracted by her gravity. The shooting stars that you see at night, are actually burning meteors that fall on Earth from outer space! This is the first of many interesting facts that are going to follow. Why do meteorites fall? For the same reason why anything falls on Earth – ‘Gravity’. Very few can escape it! Meteorites have their origin in outer space. They are relatively small pieces of dust and debris, usually left behind in the wake of a comet. Meteorites, that are huge in size, have their origin in space, as asteroids. They are left over pieces of matter from formation of the solar system, which could not clump together to form a planet like our Earth. There is a dense belt of such asteroids outside the orbit of the planet Mars, called the ‘Asteroid Belt’. Asteroids are huge in size and their lengths can number to kilometers! Once in a while, small pieces of rock or dust, come into range of Earth’s gravitational pull and fall on Earth as shooting stars. An asteroid dislodged from its trajectory and falling on Earth is also called a meteorite. However, an asteroid being huge in size, causes a cataclysmic explosion on Earth on impact. Origin ‘Meteor’ and ‘Meteorite’ facts are interchangeable terms and we shall see why they are so. When these rocks and pieces of dust are floating in space, they are called ‘Meteoroids’. When they make a blazing entry into Earth’s atmosphere, they are called ‘Meteors’. Finally, if they survive the burning entry into Earth’s atmosphere and fall on Earth, they are called ‘Meteorites’. So a meteorite could originate from comet debris called meteoroids or larger objects called asteroids! Here are some basic facts about meteorites, meteors and meteoroids. Comets leave tons of dust and debris in their trail as they travel along long orbits round the Sun. When Earth, while revolving around the Sun, passes through some patches of this comet debris, it enters the Earth’s atmosphere causing meteor showers. Meteor showers are periodic events. One can see thousands of meteors or shooting stars, as they are called, dur ing such a shower. The most popular meteor showers are ‘Perseids’ (which peak around August 12) and Leonids (which peak around 17 November). During these showers, you can observe a shooting star at the rate of 1 meteor per minute on an average. A falling meteor can travel at speed of as much as 44 miles per second ! One of the facts is that they have some of the oldest rocks in the solar system among them. They could be older than the Earth and date from the period when Sun was forming! Every day, about 4 billion meteoroids fall on Earth! Majority of them are very tiny and therefore do not cause much harm. If a meteorite is observed while falling and recovered from the place of fall, it’s called a ‘fall’ meteorite. If a meteorite is not observed while falling, but found from any location, it’s called a ‘find.’ Till 2006, there have been roughly 1,050 witnessed falls while there are about 30,000 documented ‘Finds’. Falling meteors which are large in size, can create an intense electromagnetic pulse, which temporarily disrupt radio communication in the region of fall! With a properly designed radio antenna, you can actually ‘hear’ meteorites falling as radio noise. Types and Composition Here are some facts about their types and composition, that you should know about. Recovered meteorites are classified into three main categories which are ‘Chondrites’ (Make about 86% of all recovered meteorites), ‘Achondrites’ (8%) and ‘Iron’ meteorites (6 %). The name ‘Chondrites’ comes from features called ‘Chrondules’, which are melted silicate materials from their past. Chondrites are about 4.55 billion years old and are the types of rocks from which our own planet formed! Certain chondrite meteorites fallen from outer space contain traces of amino acids and organic matter, bolstering the theory that life may have been planted on Earth! This is one of the most astounding facts. Achronidtes are relatively younger meteorites of the igneous rock type and are pieces of asteroids, the Moon and Mars! Iron meteorites are composed of iron-nickel alloys and silicate materials. They are also thought to be pieces of asteroid s! Every one of these meteor facts are intriguing. Earth has been pounded by the impact of many meteorites, ranging from the very tiny to gigantic meteorites. The meteorites impact craters that are found on earth are testimony to this. It is time for the last of our facts. One gigantic meteorite impact occurred millions of years ago on Earth which brought on the extinction of dinosaurs! One question that may come to your mind is, ‘Where do meteorites fall?’. They could fall anywhere on Earth. Meteors have been found all over the world. The recent findings have been mostly in Africa and accessible parts of Antarctica. If you could find one, you are bound to be rich as private collectors and museums pay millions of dollars for them! The reason is that they are very rare and are made up of minerals, which are never found on Earth! So keep looking! You may never know, when one might pop out of the sky, making you rich. So it’s actually profitable to know some meteor facts. Originating in the outer space, an object reaches Earth and gets a place in the list of meteorites. There have been many instances of extraterrestrial bo dies impacting the Earth’s surface while some have only passed through the Earth’s atmosphere before they were destroyed. Meteorites have been arousing interest of the masses as there is an element of mystery that surrounds them. Where do they originate? What makes some of them enter the Earth’s atmosphere? How dangerous can they get? Space research and astronomy have revealed some interesting information about some of these questions and researched thoroughly on the different types of meteorites. Most of the meteorites disintegrate before reaching Earth while some reach the planet’s surface. Huge meteorites form craters on Earth while the smaller ones involve less danger. Meteorites containing small round particles are known as chondrites and form about 86% of those falling on Earth. Those similar in appearance to small igneous rocks are called achondrites and believed as being the crustal material of asteroids. Meteorites originating from the core of asteroids are known as iron meteorites and form about 5% of the meteorites, which fall. History has recorded a number of instances of meteorites impacting the Earth. ALH 84001: It was found in the Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984. Meteorite hunters of the United States working on ASMNET project discovered this meteorite. When discovered, its mass was 1.93 kilograms and its rock was reportedly one of the oldest forms. This meteorite was supposed to have come from Mars. Later it was believed to consist of some traces of the life on Mars and this made ALH 84001 more famous than ever. Hoba: This meteorite lies on the farm Hoba West in Namibia and has never been moved elsewhere because of its exceptionally greater mass. With a mass of about 60 tons, it is the largest meteorite known to mankind. It is tabloid in shape and composed of metal. It is believed to have landed on Earth about 80,000 years ago. In 1955, it was declared as a national monument and has since then been attracting visitors from different parts of the world. Tunguska Event: The Tunguska explosion took place in June 1908 near Tunguska River, now a part of Russia. Most probably, the air burst of a large meteorite caused this explosion. The energy emitted from this explosion was about 1000 times greater than that of the bomb blast of Hiroshima. According to the eyewitnesses of this explosion, the event started with a flash of bright blue light and a sound originating from east and moving northward. Later the sound was accompanied by shock waves that broke windows miles away. This was one of the famous disintegrating meteorites that remain in the list of world’s most famous meteorites. Willamette Meteorite: This is an iron-nickel meteorite that was discovered in the United States near Oregon. It is the largest of the meteorites found in the United Sates as also the sixth largest in the world. Probably the meteorite had landed in the region, which is now known as Canada. This meteorite weighing about 15.5 tons is one of the very large meteorites of the world. Orgueil: This meteorite fell in France in 1864 and is a relatively older meteorite. The fall of this meteorite consisted of small stones that covered a massive area. This is one of those eight meteorites that belong to the CL chondrite group. A striking feature of this type of meteorite it that its composition is similar to that of the Sun. This meteorite is one of the most researched ones. For purposes of deeper study of the composition of this meteorite, it was split into pieces. Currently, it exists in the form of pieces kept in different museums in Europe and the United States. These were some of the famous meteorites of the world. They have always been a subject of interest for researchers around the world. Meteor showers A meteor shower is a celestial event wherein it is observed that a group of meteors radiate from anyone point in the sky. This phenomenon is also known as ‘Meteor Storm’ or ‘Meteor Outburst’. The meteors that are present in the showers are actually cosmic debris that enter the Earth atmosphere at very high speed and vaporize very quickly due to friction leaving behind a streak of light which is known as the meteor shower. An identified meteor shower is usually an annual affair as the Earth will encounter the same meteors at approximately the same time and same speed every year. Causes Meteor showers are a result of interaction that takes place between the planet Earth and a comet. Comets consist of ice and rocks (often termed dirty ice balls) that orbit around the sun like planets. Every time the comet gets close to the sun, some of the ice present in the comet melts which produces a large amount of debris. This debris moves away from the comet and becomes a part of its tail which is visible part of the comet. The solid parts of the tail are the meteoroids and they spread along the entire orbit of the comet which is termed as a meteoroid stream. As the Earth orbits around the sun, its path may cross the meteoroid stream and a meteor shower follows. When the meteoroid stream is particularly dense, then we get to witness the meteor storm and having witnessed one myself, I can guarantee that the sight is truly spectacular. People Behind the Concept It is believed that Irish astronomer George Johnstone Clooney collaborating with the British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing and Adolf Berberich belonging to the Royal Astronomical Computation Institute in Berlin, Germany offered the very first idea of the meteoroid stream in the 1890. They were able to calculate as to how the meteoroids once freed from the comet would travel at low speeds when compared to the comet itself would start drifting after completing one orbit. This effect was attributed to simple orbital wherein the materials drift laterally away from the comet as some particles make a wider orbit when compared to other particles. The gravitational pull of the Earth’s atmosphere would decide where the dust trails would pass the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fair possibility that some years, the dust particles can completely miss the Earth’s orbit. Major Meteor Showers If you want to watch meteor showers then the best time of the year is the night of January 3. The shower has been named Quadrantids and this particular shower can produce over a close to 140 meteors per hour. The source of this shower is not a comet but a minor planet, 2003 EH1 which suffered a catastrophic breakup in 1490. However, the showers are very faint and the peak hours last only for a few hours. Hence, you will have to be in a good spot and at an ideal point to watch the shower in all its glory and the best place to watch this particular shower is from the Northern Hemisphere. But people in Southern Hemisphere need not be disappointed. As a matter of fact, they get to witness a meteor shower termed Eta Aquarids which consists of debris from the famous Halley’s Comet. This shower peaks on the night of May 5 and the rate of meteors is about 30 per hour. The meteor shower ‘Geminids’ is considered to be the best annual shower. It peaks around the night of December 13 and the rate of meteor is around 70 per hour. The source of this shower is also a minor planet, 3200 Phaethon. It is best visible from the Northern Hemisphere and it is believed that due to the extreme cold conditions, the air tends to be more transparent and this is the reason as to why this particular shower is spectacular. Sporadic Meteor Showers When the meteoroids collide with each other and can become a part of the sporadic meteors background. They form isolated meteors and are not a part of any shower. Asteroids Asteroids are considered to be remnants of an early broken planet of the solar system. Asteroids have no fixed shape and are too small to be spherical in shape. They are ellipsoids (two dimensional figure), dumbbell or irregularly shaped. As they have different shapes, they also vary in their size. The first asteroid Ceres, discovered in January 1801 by Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi, is the largest known asteroid and is 940 km in diameter. Some of the smallest asteroids are just 6 meters in diameter. The mass of all the asteroids added together, is believed to lesser than the mass of the Moon. Only 200,000 asteroids have been discovered so far, but billion more undiscovered asteroids still exit in our solar system. Asteroid Belt Most asteroids lie in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, however there are more belts in the solar system, namely the ones beyond Neptune’s orbit. The belt itself has interesting origination theories. Most astronomers believe that the belt is a broken planet, while some say that the belt is primordial material that never coalesced into a planet because of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. The asteroid belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and contains more than 200 asteroids larger than 100 km in diameter, and more than 750,000 asteroids with diameters larger than 1 km. Most asteroids are found in this belt because of the gravitational interaction between the solar system and the celestial bodies in it. As opposed to the fiction made popular by various depictions of the asteroid belt, it is not at all dense. The region is so vast that asteroids are hundreds of thousands of kilometers away from their closest neighbor. The asteroids are so small and far away from each other that they appear as faint stars, and except for Ceres, are not bright enough to be seen without some telescopic aid. Only the asteroid Vesta, on rare occasions of an extremely clear dark sky can become visible to the naked eye. What are Asteroids Composed Of? Asteroids are made of different minerals and substances. This depends on the planet they broke away from in a collision, as well as the chemical reactions they might have experienced while orbiting in the solar system. The asteroids closest to the Sun are mostly carbonaceous and the ones further away are composed of silicate rock. The metallic asteroids are made of 70-80% iron and the remaining is nickel with many other metals such as iridium mixed in. Some are also made of half silicate and half metallic. The asteroid Ceres is composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, whereas Vesta has a nickel-iron core, basaltic crust and a covering of magnesium iron silicate (olivine mantle). Asteroids composition has been classified as the following: C class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s outer belt and are darker and more carbonaceous than the ones found in the S class. D class asteroids: They are also known as Trojan asteroids of Jupiter and are dark and carbonaceous in composition. S class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s inner belt, closer to Mars and are composed of mostly stone and iron. V class asteroids: They are a far-out group of asteroids that follow a path between the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus, and are made of igneous, eruptive materials. A near-Earth asteroid collided with the Earth about 65 million years ago, which triggered environmental changes, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs. This asteroid created a huge circular depression called the Chicxulub Basin and is centered in Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, a major tourist attraction. Though the chances of asteroid collision with the Earth is very rare, they do come very close to our planet due to collisions and gravitational tugs on the highly elliptical Sun’s orbit. Most asteroids burn up in the atmosphere and never reach the Earth. NASA projects, such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) main objectives are to detect and intercept asteroids or other celestial bodies coming close to the Earth before they cause untold damage to our planet. Asteroids are small celestial bodies composed of rock and metal, that revolve around the Sun. Their size can vary: some asteroids are large and roughly spherical in shape, due to which they appear like miniature planets; while the others are small and irregularly shaped. The matter of these celestial bodies also differs. The asteroid ‘Vesta’, is believed to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle and basaltic crust, while the asteroid ’10 Hygiea’ is composed of carbonaceous chondrite. Most of the small asteroids are piles of rubble held together by gravity. Some asteroids supposedly have traces of amino-acids and other organic compounds, and it is assumed that the impact of asteroids on the Earth could have initiated life on the planet by seeding it with the necessary chemical substances. Although, it is believed that the asteroids may have planted life on the Earth, they are capable of having catastrophic effect on the planet as well. Asteroids with a diameter of 5 to 10 meters, and energy equal to 15 kilotons of TNT, enter into the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once every year; while, those with a diameter of over 50 meters enter the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once in a thousand years. Their impact can be devastating if they hit the Earth, but they disintegrate in the upper atmosphere and most of the particles are vaporized, thus rendering them harmless. In the distant past, our planet has experienced a massive climate change and large-scale extinction of animal and plant species, ascribed to the impact of some large asteroids on the planet. The exogenesis theory suggests that origin of life on the Earth must have been triggered by the impact of some asteroid, carrying organic chemicals needed to initiate life form. The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, which led to the end of dinosaurs and the Permian-Triassic extinction event that led to the end of the Permian period finishing off 90% of the species on the planet, are believed to be the result of an asteroid impact on the Earth. The craters on the solid bodies in the solar system, which were attributed to volcanic activities till 1960s, were actually formed due to the impact of celestial bodies. Researchers have determined that in the last 600 million years, 60 objects with a diameter of five km or more, have struck the Earth. Even the smallest of these object possessed energy of ten million megatons of TNT, and would have formed a crater, approximately 95 km in diameter, on the surface of our planet. The Rio Cuarto craters in Argentina are believed to have formed due to the impact of asteroids that struck this area around 10,000 years ago. In 1490, ten thousand people reportedly lost their lives due to a hail of stones from the sky. This hail of stones is assumed to be result of the disintegration of a large asteroid, after it entered the Earth’s atmosphere. In 1908, a mid-air explosion of an asteroid destroyed 80 million trees, within an area of 830 miles, near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River, in Si beria. In many cases, the sighting of a foreign body, such as an asteroid or a meteoroids is reported as a fireball in the sky. Millions of asteroids will pass by the Earth in the years to come. Though, they are unknown now, they are detectable as they come closer to the planet. The Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) are projects initiated by NASA to detect asteroids or other such foreign bodies coming close to the Earth. The need of the hour is to develop an intercept system in space, to destroy or deflect foreign objects heading towards our planet, before they prove catastrophic. Asteroids are celestial bodies consisting of rocks and metals. They are mainly concentrated in the region known as the asteroid belt which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids can be as big as Ceres, which is close to 1000 kilometers in diameter, or can be just a few feet in diameter. Whatever the size, asteroids are neither big enough to be called planets nor are they as small as comets. They are classified as minor planets that include the Kuiper Belt Objects. Discovery On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid which he initially thought to be a comet. He named this asteroid Ceres, after the Sicilian Goddess of grain. Ceres is also the largest asteroid to have been discovered so far. Soon, other large asteroids like Pallas, Juno and Vista were discovered. By the end of the 19th century, several hundred asteroids were discovered. Formation of Asteroids It was once believed that asteroids were formed by the explosion of a planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. However, according to present day astronomers, asteroids are debris left behind by the Big Bang that could not come together to form a tenth planet because of the effect of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. Asteroid Hits Asteroids have been hitting the Earth since millions of years. However, due to the friction with Earth’s atmosphere most of the asteroids get burnt. The asteroids that enter the Earth’ s atmosphere are called meteors while the ones that get burnt and appear as shooting stars are called meteorites. According to the Giant Impact Theory, the Moon was created when Theia, an asteroid of the size of Mars, collided with the Earth in the early days of the solar system. However, some consider Theia to be more of a planetoid than an asteroid. The largest crater caused by an asteroid hit is the Chicxulub Crater in Mexico that is 180 km in diameter. The asteroid that formed the crater had a diameter of 10 km. This collision is supposed to be responsible for the extinction of a large number of flora and fauna including the dinosaur. However, the evidence of the largest asteroid hit is in the Vredefort crater in South Africa that is 300 km in diameter. Impacts of Asteroid Hits The damage that an asteroid’s impact can cause depends mainly upon its mass and velocity, as these are the two factors that determine the energy that is released when an asteroid hits the Earth. While some asteroids are capable of sending thermal waves that can incinerate most flora and fauna within a few hundred kilometers, some larger asteroids can create huge impacts causing magma to cover areas as big as continents. The worst effect of an asteroid hit is the blocking out of sunlight for months together due to formation of dust clouds and soot in the upper atmosphere. This would hamper the green plants’ ability to prepare food through the process of photosynthesis and the food chain would be disrupted. Near-Earth Asteroids Near-Earth asteroids are those that have moved closer to the Earth’s orbit as they have been knocked out of the asteroid belt due to collision with other asteroids or comets, or due to the gravitational forces of Jupiter. They are classified into the following three groups: The Amors: These are near-Earth asteroids that cross the orbit of Mars but do not go out of the Earth’s orbit. The Apollos: The orbits of these near-Earth asteroids cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of greater than one year. The Atens: These near-Earth asteroids have orbits that cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of less than one year. Asteroids are currently being monitored for their probability of colliding with the Earth. Such studies have predicted that asteroids may hit the Earth on February 1, 2019 and March 16, 2880. The probability of the 2880 collision is as high as 1 in 300. A number of projects in the field of astronomy, like Spacewatch, Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking and Catalina Sky Survey are being carried out to detect any threat of such catastrophes. Comets A comet is a small body in space. It was matter of great interest to astronomers like Sir Edmond Halley. Many decades later, comets still remain a challenging mystery for the field of astronomy. Space research institutes around the world have reported the existence of 3628 comets that are known and studied. Annually, an average of one comet is sighted by the naked eye from the surface of the Earth. According to the definitions given by the various space research organizations, a comet can be defined as a space body that travels in an elliptical orbit around the sun. Most of the comets travel in elliptical orbits. When the comet comes in the vicinity of the star it is orbiting around, its comma-like tail gets illuminated. A majority of comets are visible only through telescopes and other aids. There are however, some comets which are also visible to the naked eye. What is a Comet Made Up of? A comet is principally made up of ice, dust and different forms of gases. The nature of the components differs from comet to comet. The central part of a comet that looks like a ball is termed as the nucleus. The nucleus is principally made up of ice and frozen gases. The frozen components also include many other compounds like ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide. Rocks are another component of the nucleus. Due to such composition, the nucleus of the comet often resembles a huge ball of dirt and snow. It is also believed by some astronomers, that the nucleus of a comet is rather fragile because several comets have split into parts without any explainable reason except immense velocity. The huge elliptical orbit takes the comet in the range of heat of the star around which it is orbiting. When the comet enters the inner parts of the solar system, the frozen content of the nucleus starts melting. The gases and water within the nucleus vaporize as a result of radiation from the star and the solar wind. The immense velocity of the comet and the solar wind, push the vaporized matter away from the nucleus. This gives the comet it’s distinct tail and the comma-like appearance. The high amount of heat and the ions (charged particles that are formed due to the heat of the sun) cause the tail of the comet to glow. How are Comets Formed? According to their formation or birth, the comets can be classified into two types. The first type is short-term comets which originate in the Kuiper belt as space bodies beyond the orbit of Pluto. The gravitational pull of the planets in the solar system, causes the origin of short term comets. These comets enter the solar system and take the form of active and glowing comets. Long term comets originate as traveling bodies in the Oort cloud (located around 50,000 light years away from the sun). The gravitational attraction of the planets in the solar system and other gravitational forces cause these comets to form elliptical orbits. Death of a Comet The study of comets has revealed that they have a fragile structure. Sometimes, comets split into parts due to sheer velocity. The entry and exit of comets in the solar system in course of its orbit, reduces the amount of matter (ice and frozen gases) in it. Due to this reduction in matter, the comets break-up and disperse into clouds. A dead comet is nothing but an asteroid or a similar form of a space body. Sometimes the comets also crash in other planets when their orbits cross each other. The most famous example of such a comet is the Shoemaker Levy 9, that crashed into Jupiter. For astronomers who have spent their lives studying comets, it a very heart-breaking moment to gaze at a dying comet. The Halley’s Comet is said to be one of the most beautiful comets. Another very beautiful comet is the Hale-Bopp, that was discovered in the year 1995, on 23rd July. It was predicted by astronomers that the Halley’s Comet would be sighted in the November of 1835. Mark Twain, the famous writer, was born just two weeks after the sighting. He developed a very special liking towards the Halley’s Comet. In his biography he comments,†I came in with the Halley’s Comet, and expect to go with it. The Almighty has said no doubt, Now here are two unaccountable freaks; they came in together; they must go out together.† Halley’s Comet was next sighted on 20th April, 1910. Twain ended the journey of his life the very next day. The journey of any comet is indeed like that of Mark Twain. It is remarkably long, fast, adventurous as it streaks across the dark sky. Haley’s comet Historical Spottings British scientist, Edmond Halley who observed the comet in 1682, was the first person to establish its periodic reappearance after every 75-76 years. He studied the comet and quite accurately predicted that it had earlier appeared in 1531 and in 1607. It was named ‘Halley’ in his honor and was observed again in 1758 as stated by him. It was last seen in February 1986. However, this was not the first time the comet was in focus. The first sighting recorded, was way back in 240 BC, by the Chinese and was mentioned in a chronicle, ‘Records of the Great Historian’. The comet also finds a mention in a Babylonian clay inscription of 164 BC. It has always been a subject of great interest, since it was believed to have an influence on the contemporary events. Armenian king Tigranes II, had its image printed on the coins issued in his regime after it was sighted in 87 BC. Therefore, even though the recurrence of the comet was an unknown fact, people were fascinated b y its appearance. The bright star that appeared in the night sky in 12 BC, coinciding with the birth of Jesus, is widely believed to be the Halley’s comet. Giotto Di Bondone, the famous Italian painter, who lived before the renaissance era, painted it in his work ‘The Star of Bethlehem’ in the Nativity, in 1305. He had seen the comet appear in 1301 and was impressed by the spectacle. In the middle ages, the appearance of a comet was considered to be a warning sign of a forthcoming danger. The most famous incident of spotting a comet during this period, was in 1066, before the Battle of Hastings. King Harold who had lost the battle, was believed to have seen the comet due to which he was cursed. In fact, the Bayeux Tapestry in Normandy, France, signifies the Norman victory in this battle with an image of King Harold looking at the comet in the sky. In 1456, Pope Calixtus III had condemned its appearance considering it to be an evil omen. Three years prior to this, Europe was defeated by the Ottoman Empire. Human beings have always blamed celestial phenomena, whenever they have not been able to explain the causes of certain unfavorable events. Historically, the presence of a comet in the night sky was commonly cited as the reason behind difficult situations that were beyond the reasoning of common man. A French physician, Ambroise, had described the pitiful conditions of middle ages, when a comet was seen just before the spread of a big epidemic. According to him, some people were scared to death while others fell sick on seeing the comet. It was believed to be some ‘evil form’ leaving behind a trail of blood, believed to be a sign of misery. Recent Spottings In the 16th and the 17th century, scientists learned to calculate the speed and distance at which comets travel around the Sun. Once, Edmond Halley had established the year of its reappearance, Halley’s comet became a matter of great interest. Although, he didn’t live to see his prediction coming true, his observation had a significant impact on the way society perceived comets. The sighting of a comet, especially Halley’s comet became less of a concern and more of a curiosity among people. Once people realized that comets are orbiting bodies just like planets, they became less apprehensive on the arrival of a comet in the Earth’s visibility zone. The change in the attitude of the people was seen in the depiction of the comet in the contemporary pictures. Halley’s comet was a subject of scientific study and was depicted as a beautiful heavenly body in the sky. Famous American writer Mark Twain was born in 1835, the year when Halley’s comet ha d appeared. He predicted in 1909 that since he had ‘come’ with the comet he will ‘go out’ with it. Sure enough, he passed away a year after the comet reappeared in 1910. In the 1900s, it had appeared twice; once in 1910 and then in 1986. Further studies gave us a deep insight into the structure, composition and orbital journey of many different comets. Halley’s comet has one of the shortest orbital paths. It is classified as a short period comet, i.e. comets having an orbit period of 200 years or less. Once upon a time, it belonged to the long period class, but due to the gravitational force of planets, its orbit shortened over a period of time. Today, it is known that comets like ‘Hale Bopp’ which appeared in 1997, will reappear after 4200 years! Thus, Halley’s comet is the most frequently spotted one. Recently, it was seen in February 1986. During this visit, it was subjected to its biggest scrutiny ever. Five spacecrafts from The European Space Agency, Japan and the USSR were launched to study its surface. Structure and Composition of Halley’s Comet Halley’s comet is a big mass of ice and dust, having an elliptical orbit and shaped like a peanut. It has a highly elongated orbit, taking it very close to the Sun. It flings off far in the outer solar system, similar to a slingshot motion. The composition is mainly of water, sodium monoxide, methane, ammonia, hydrocarbons, iron and sodium. Its closest distance from the Sun was found to be just 0.6 AU (astronomical unit) and the farthest distance was calculated to be 35 AU, roughly the same distance as that of Pluto. It orbits the Sun in a retrograde or in the direction opposite to that of the planets’ revolution. The speed with respect to the Earth is quite high, since it is highly eccentric and inclined. The day time is relatively more on its surface and its maximum temperature rises up to 77 degrees celsius. Due to its large size and a well-defined and regular orbit, it was easy for the probe missions photograph it closely and study its surface. The mass of the comet is 1.7Ãâ€"1015 kilograms and the size of the nucleus has been estimated to be 15 km Ãâ€" 7 km Ãâ€" 7 km. Winds blowing near its surface are so strong that 1 gram particle of dust which hit the Giotto space probe, briefly destabilized it. Halley’s comet will next appear in 2062. Comets have always been a fascination for human beings and will continue to mesmerize generations to come, as we discover more interesting facts about these spectacular fireballs, the comets. Comet lullin Comet Lulin was discovered on July 11, 2007, by the duo of Ye Quanzhi and Lin Chi-Sheng. A non-periodic comet, Lulin appears to be greenish in color. This green color is attributed to the presence of gases such as cyanogen and diatomic carbon, which produce a green glow when illuminated by sunlight in the vacuum of the space. Officially designated as C/2007 N3 (Lulin), it is also known as the ‘Comet of Cooperation’ in China and Taiwan, as the two individuals involved in its discovery, were from these two countries. This comet was first photographed by Taiwanese astronomer Lin Chi-Sheng on July 11, 2007, while he was working on the Lulin Sky Survey Project (LUSS) at the Lulin observatory in Nantou, Taiwan. The Lulin Sky Survey Project aims to identify the numerous small objects in the solar system, particularly those that pose possible hazards to our planet. Lin used a 16-inch telescope to photograph this comet, which was initially assumed to be an asteroid. A few days later, Ye Quanzhi, a 19-year old student of meteorology from Sun Yat-Sen University, China, recognized this comet while going through Lin’s photographs. Its status of being a comet was confirmed after the presence of coma, the nebulous envelope around the nucleus of the comet, was noticed. Both, Lin and Quanzhi were accredited with the discovery of this new comet. As it was first noticed from the Lulin Observatory, it was named as Comet Lulin. Comet Lulin was seen in the Libra constellation from January to March 2009. In January, it was getting brighter and could be seen just before dawn; while in February, the brightness reached its peak. Eventually, in March, it started to fade as it went farther away from the Earth. While it was approaching the Earth, it had a typical tail pointing away from the Sun, as well as an ‘anti-tail’ which was directly pointing towards the sun. Although, it was assumed that this anti-tail was observed only in photographs, so me observers reported that it was visible even from a telescope in February 2009. According to Brian Marsden, an astronomer at Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Massachusetts, this comet’s closest approach to the sun was on January 10, 2009 when it reached a distance of 113 million miles from the sun. He noticed that the comet was moving in a retrograde orbit that is near-parabolic. On February 24, Comet Lulin came the closest to the Earth, at a distance of 0.41 AU or 38 million miles to be precise. On February 4, 2009, a team of Italian astronomers, under the leadership of Ernesto Guido, witnessed a strange phenomenon taking place in comet Lulin. While photographing the comet with a remotely controlled telescope in New Mexico, they saw that its tail suddenly disconnected. Ernesto attributed this odd phenomenon to magnetic disturbance of the solar wind hitting the comet. Earlier, this had been observed with Comet Encke too, when coronal mass ejection occurred, due to such magnetic storms. Photographs taken by NASA’s Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite in ultra-violet and X-rays show that Lulin is shedding 800 gallons of water every second. Observations by NASA also revealed that the surface material of the comet was burning away due to sun’s heat. This sighting of Comet Lulin was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the whole world, as there is no possibility of this comet returning to the inner solar system, at least not for the next thousand years. Human kind has always looked to the heavens in awe and wonder, and sometimes in fear. Perhaps no other astronomical phenomenon except a total solar eclipse has historically evoked as much fear as comets. When the specter of fear is removed, however, they emerge as strikingly beautiful objects in the sky. It was once believed that if earth passed through a tail of a comet, its inhabitants would die; this theory has been discredited. Comets are messengers from a time long past. Most are chunks of dirty ice, locked away in the Oort cloud for billions of years. (Oort cloud: – It is the source for long period comets, with orbital periods of greater than two hundred years.) Comets are familiar to nearly everyone as striking star like objects with long tails stretching across a wide band of the sky. The most famous comet, Halley’s comet makes its return to the skies every seventy-five years. The word â€Å"comet† is derived from a Greek word meaning â€Å"long haired† Comets were greatly feared before the twentieth century as bad omens. Since then, they have been identified and cataloged as objects that come from deep space. Most of them occupy orbits that carry them far outside the solar system. Many of them make only a single approach to the sun and never return again, while others exist in stable, but highly elliptical orbits that allow them to return after an extended period of time, su ch as the Halley’s comet. In 1986, the European space probe Giotto passed about 600 kilometers from the Comet Halley as it made its close approach to the sun. The probe verified existing theories that comets are made up of ices covered by black dust or soil. The spacecraft confirmed a theory that had been advanced prior to the reconnaissance that described comets as â€Å"dirty snowballs.† Using data taken by the spacecraft, scientists determined that the dust is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Other metals have also been discovered in comets, such as iron, calcium, nickel, potassium, copper and silicon. Halley’s comet was one of the darkest objects ever seen in the solar system; it was basically flat black. Comets are composed of a mixture of ices and dust. As a comet approaches the sun, it absorbs the suns energy and warms up. The main body of the comet is called the nucleus. As the nucleus warms, the ice beneath the comets soil evaporates. Because the comet has no atmosphere, the evaporated substance (also called a volatile) escapes into the vacuum of space as a gaseous envelope that surrounds the comet called â€Å"coma.† As the coma grows, it forms a plume of vapor that carries away some of the comets surface as well. This mixture of evaporated volatile particles and dust is carried away from the comet by solar wind, is ionized by high-energy particles, and creates the spectacular tail of the comet. The comet’s tail, glowing in the solar wind, can stream behind the comet for millions of kilometers. The nucleus of the comet consists of mostly volatile ices and dust. The ice is nearly all water ice, but there is also evidence of ices composed of carbon dioxide and methane. More elementary compounds of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide may exist as volatile ices. Comets are typically small bodies (comparatively!!). Halley’s comet is a potato shaped object, 14 by 17 kilometers. The largest known comet is Chiron, which is estimated to be approximately 200 kilometers in diameter. Comets are thought to have formed as the solar system evolved. The material of which comets are composed was constructed by accretion at the outer edge of the disk of material that ultimately became the sun and planets. Because the comet material was fashioned at the outer edge of the solar system, the sun did not evaporate the volatiles in the cometary material. At the same time, the giant planets of the solar system formed at what would become the outer orbits of the solar system. These massive planets encountered the newly formed comets, and the ones that were not engulfed by the giant planets were, over the first billion years, catapulted into interstellar space by the planets massive gravitational fields. Not all comets met that fate, however. Some were gently nudged into stable orbits closer to the sun. Others were flung into the inner solar system and impacted the inner planets. Relevance: – The study of comets involves detailed knowledge of its composition of the outer regions of the solar system and the space between the last planet and 100,000 astronomical units onwards. Cometary study also seeks to understand complex gravitational interactions between bodies separated by wide distances and even gravitational interactions between tiny comets, their behavior when approaching the sun, and something of the makeup and evolution of the early solar system. New comets approaching the sun for the first time have been held in deep freeze in the Oort cloud and are thought to be composed of primordial material of the newly forming solar system. They have been tied up in the Oort cloud for billions of years at temperatures slightly above absolute zero. As they approach the sun, their internal gases begin to steam away. A detailed study of an approaching comet may tell cosmologists about the composition of the early solar systems. Comets and their approach have also hinted at the existence of the elusive brown dwarf, thought to be one of the most common bodies of interstellar space. Because they are so dim, they are all but invisible from Earth. On the other hand, because brown dwarfs are thought to be so plentiful, the study of comets and their orbits may give the first real clues to the former’s reality and abundance. In the early 1980s the existence of the galactic tidal action was merely speculation. Since then, careful study of cometary orbits and approaches has favorable supported the theory of galactic tides. In the close approach of Halley’s comet by an unmanned spacecraft in 1986, a wealth of information was recovered on the shape, behavior, and composition of comets. The existence of the Oort cloud and the concept gravitational interactions by passing objects in space have led to the theory of periodic comet showers. Such comet showers, separated by periods of tens of millions of years, may be responsible for the mass extinction on Earth. There is a wide speculation that Earth was struck by one or more comets 70 million years ago, which wiped out the dinosaurs. Some scientists have speculated that this extinction was the result of a shower of comets from the Oort cloud, sent on their close approach to the sun by a passing star or brown dwarf through the Oort cloud. Comets have been used to judge vast distances, evaluate the composition of the solar system as it was being born, and even test the idea that the gravity of the entire galaxy can make a difference to the smallest objects in space. Comets have been used as yardsticks to evaluate what may be the most type of star in the galaxy-the brown dwarf-which ironically is one that may never be seen. They have also been called dirty snowballs. Halley’s comet was so black that it was the darkest object ever seen in space. Yet, from these dirty specks of ice, cosmologists have witnessed some of the most spectacular light shows. Ultimately comets may also generate clues to some of the most fundamental secrets about the solar system and planets. From these tiny messengers, cosmologists may unlock and examine pristine elements from creation itself.